Values in Career Development

Introduction to Values

Values are central to human motivation and play a significant role in career development. Most writers agree that the meaning ascribed to values is constructed within the contexts in which individuals live [1]. Values and the meanings attached to life roles change in concert with changes in culture and society, though the extent of this change is unclear [1]. Values are relatively stable across the lifespan, transcending different situations, but not immune to change[1]. They influence the relative importance placed on work in relation to other life roles[1]. Values are constructs that cannot be observed but are recognized through goals such as physical and mental health, security (including financial security), social status, and self-fulfillment [1].

Values refer to what is important in life, with individuals holding various values (e.g., achievement, security, benevolence) with varying importance [4]. Values are among the most stable and enduring characteristics of individuals, forming the basis for attitudes and personal preferences [4]. Organizations also have value systems, known as organizational culture [4].

Values are general beliefs about desirable or undesirable ways of behaving and about desirable or undesirable goals or end states [4]. They are transsituational criteria or goals ordered by importance as guiding principles in life [4].

According to value theory, values have six main components: they are beliefs tied to affect; desirable goals that motivate action; transcend specific actions and circumstances; serve as standards and criteria; are ordered by relative importance; and their relative importance guides action [4].

Conceptualizations of Values

A number of conceptualizations of values have been proposed, emphasizing their centrality to the self-concept [1]. One conceptualization addresses needs, values, and interests, though these terms are often used interchangeably, leading to conceptual confusion [1]. Needs are defined as wants or manifestations of physiological conditions related to survival, while values result from refinement through environmental interaction, and interests are activities expected to attain values and satisfy needs [1].

In a further elaboration, values are cognized representations of needs that provide standards for behavior, orient people to desired end states, form the basis for goal setting, and are major factors in motivation by attributing worth to situations and objects [1]. Values serve as the basis for self-regulating cognitions and judging the utility of external reinforcers [1]. However, these definitions do not acknowledge the active role individuals have in giving meaning to experiences and constructing their own values [1].

Values are beliefs that are experienced as standards for how individuals should function [3]. Individuals judge their own performance and that of others against a core set of beliefs or values, which are important in selecting life roles and deriving satisfaction from them [3]. Values develop from interactions between inherited characteristics and experience [3]. Cultural background, gender, and socioeconomic status influence opportunities and social interaction, leading to variation in values within and between subgroups of society [3, 1].

As values form, they become crystallized and prioritized, with crystallization occurring when they can be labeled and articulated, enabling individuals to judge behavior and compare themselves with others [3]. High-functioning individuals have well-crystallized and prioritized values [3]. Values with high priorities are key determinants of choices when alternatives are available [3]. Satisfaction is likely when choices are compatible with values [3].

Values are beliefs with cognitive, affective, and behavioral components, enduring but less stable than traits [7]. They include instrumental values (desirable modes of conduct, e.g., ambitious, obedient) and terminal values (desirable end states, e.g., comfortable life, equality)[7]. Values are cognitive representations and transformations of needs, providing standards, orienting to end states, and enduring [7].

Essential features of values include: they are beliefs; pertain to desirable end states or behaviors; guide selection or evaluation of behaviors and events; remain stable across context and time; and are ordered by relative importance [7]. Values are stable motivational constructs representing broad goals, applying across context and time [7].

Work Values

Work values are defined as end states people desire and feel they ought to realize through working, constructed by individuals as they make meaning of work experiences [1]. Studies show people would continue working irrespective of financial necessity, with self-realization values (personal development, ability utilization, achievement) ranked highly across countries for adolescents and adults [1]. Individuals construct work values in relationship with work experience rather than seeking work that realizes idealized work values [1]. It is important to conceptualize work values as personal and social constructions rather than ideals, especially in environments denying traditional values like prestige and security [1]. This aligns with the constructivist position that life and career values cannot be separated [1].

There is criticism that work values have been treated as psychological phenomena without regard for historical, sociological, philosophical, and economic processes [1]. The study of values should be broader than work values alone [1]. Work values are shared interpretations of what people want and expect from work, central to understanding the meaning of work and reasons for working [7]. This shared social reality influences work design and socialization [7].

Work values are considered applicable to individuals with workplace experience [7]. They relate to occupational choice and adjustment, assuming values influence career choice and work behavior outcomes [7]. Values assessment frames career decisions in underlying motivations, comparing individual values to occupational rewards for exploration [7]. Fit between individual values and organization has implications for career management [7].

Other life-role values also influence career development [6]. Different roles may satisfy different values, with life satisfaction resulting from role interaction, differing from summed role satisfactions [3]. Success in a role depends on factors beyond values satisfaction, including role-related skills, aptitudes, and values congruence [3].

Theoretical Approaches Involving Values

Historically, trait-and-factor theorists included values with needs, interests, and aptitudes in career development [1]. Interests grow out of values, and individuals seek work environments compatible with attitudes, values, skills, and abilities [1]. Work adjustment theory asserts individuals strive for congruence between occupational characteristics and needs and values [1]. Values are important to interest development but mediated by self-efficacy and outcome expectations [1].

Brown's values-based career theory adopts a holistic approach, emphasizing values as traits while acknowledging development and context [1]. It includes life roles beyond worker and their interactions [1, 3]. Values are in a unidirectional causal relationship with life role selection[1]. However, this does not account for how individuals construct work values from experience [1]. The theory reflects trends toward contextualism [3].

Values are emphasized in various theoretical approaches [2]. In the protean career theory, a protean career path is self-directed and values-driven [2]. Value congruence is the degree to which individual values are mirrored by organizational values [2]. Vocation or calling impacts careers positively and negatively [2].

Brown's theory focuses on work values and cultural values as critical variables [3]. It includes propositions incorporating cultural values [3]. Each person develops a small number of values dictating patterns [3]. Individuals are exposed to values-laden messages from family, friends, and media [3].

Clients can make effective decisions if they understand values and have values-based information [3].

Cultural and Social Dimensions of Values

Values can be culturally bound, with different cultural groups displaying distinct values [4]. Nations and social categories have distinct value profiles [4]. Individuals in a culture share social environments with unique norms, language, systems, and values [4]. However, personal experiences also form values, leading to unique values within groups [4]. Cultural dimensions of values reflect issues societies face to regulate activities, forming the foundation of norms and standards for behavior [4].

Various value models exist, evidencing values as part of culture [4]. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's model identifies five problems across cultures: essence of being human; relationship between humans, nature, and supernatural; time focus; acceptable human activity; essence of interpersonal relations [4]. Priorities vary across groups [4].

Rokeach's model distinguishes terminal values (important for meaningful life) and instrumental values (used to achieve objectives), with 36 present across cultures but varying in hierarchy[4].

Schwartz's model has ten human values at individual level and seven at country level, categorized into bipolar dimensions: conservation (tradition, conformity, security) versus openness to change (hedonism, stimulation, self-direction); self-enhancement (power, achievement) versus self-transcendence (universalism, benevolence) [4]. At cultural level, values address relationships between individuals and groups (embeddedness versus autonomy), preserving social fabric (hierarchy versus egalitarianism), and interaction with worlds (mastery versus harmony) [4].

Inglehart's model distinguishes traditional versus secular-rational values and survival versus self-expression values [4]. Secular-rational values de-emphasize religion, family, and authority, accepting divorce, abortion, etc. [4]. Self-expression values value environmental protection, tolerance, gender equality, and participation [4].

The study of values from a social-cultural approach may revitalize research [7].

 Changes in Values

Values change through contemplation and conflict [6]. Contemplation uses cognitive ability to consider core beliefs about religion, relationships, and work importance, often initiated by models, day-to-day experiences, or dramatic events like accidents or loss [6]. New beliefs are tested and confirmed or disconfirmed by feedback, with internal feedback most powerful for individualistic values [6].

Conflict causes change, including acculturation where newcomers adopt dominant culture values due to ongoing conflict [6]. Examples include students exposed to Eurocentric values in schools and media [6]. Groups like gangs or cults pressure value adoption [6]. Workplace pressure reinforces or alters values, often by reprioritizing [6]. Intrapersonal conflict occurs when highly prioritized values conflict, resolved by reprioritizing or adopting roles satisfying both [6].

 Assessment of Values

Assessment traditionally uses quantitative inventories in two categories [1]. One guides career exploration by determining jobs meeting needs, e.g., Work Values Inventory (WVI), Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ), Work Aspect Preference Scale (WAPS) [1]. The other measures values across life aspects, assessing relative importance met by worker and other roles, e.g., Values Scale, Life Values Inventory (LVI) [1].

Counselors should explore life themes and focus on lives in progress rather than counting interests and abilities [1]. The Life Values Inventory (LVI) emanates from Brown's theory and is freely available online [3].

Work value measures developed from vocational psychology emphasis on choice and adjustment [7]. Decline in research may relate to applicability to adults, loss of research programs, but revitalization possible through social-cultural approaches and O*NET adoption of Minnesota model linking needs and values to occupational data [7].

Broad value measures like Study of Values, based on Spranger's six types (theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, religious), were used early [7]. Rokeach's Value Survey renewed interest [7].

Values are second-order needs or underlying elements of needs, defined by data reduction [7]. They describe work environment reinforcer systems [7].

 Outcomes of Values

Employees with congruent values to organization are more productive and satisfied [4]. Inconsistent values cause conflict, frustration, and non-productivity [4]. People may behave inconsistently with values, leading to misdirected decisions and frustration [4]. Values are seldom challenged until threatened, and maturity requires internalized principles developed through thought, discussion, and confrontation [4].

Values assessments benefit individuals by identifying unrewarded work values and organizations by recruiting fits [7]. Comparisons provide occupational exploration information [7]. Value fit implies career management strategies [7].

 Bibliography

[1] "The future of career", 2000

[2] Yates, J. ORCID, 2020

[3] Patton et McMahon, 2014

[4] Rothmann et Cooper, 2022

[5] Duane Brown and Associates, 2002

[6] Duane Brown and Associates, 2002 (Note: Same as [5], but distinct content rows)

[7] Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work, 2005